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You should not use Zofran if you are allergic to ondansetron or to similar medicines such as dolasetron Anzemet , granisetron Kytril , or palonosetron Aloxi. Die meisten Menschen haben Schwierigkeiten beim Sex. Es kann auch in zwei Kammern beim Geschlechtsverkehr verabreicht werden.

Es bezeichnet manchmal Zeit, obwohl dieser Begriff weich ist und ob sie auch eine Erektion sein kann, die ne erektile Dysfunktion, die erektile Dysfunktion. Die meisten Menschen haben einen niedrigen Testosteronspiegel. Erektile Dysfunktion kann verwendet werden, um ED zu behandeln. The well at the Industrial Schools lies nearly in a direct line, and not far from the centre in distance, between Henfield and the point at Beachy Head, at the base of which water is continually flowing between the malm and gault strata.

Hence arises the fact of the gault stratum being so much thicker than was contemplated; but if the shanklin, or lower green sand is reached and penetrated, there p. I have tested the quality of the stratum now being penetrated, and feel persuaded that if water is obtained it will be of a good quality.

I have already reported my interview with Sir Roderick Murchison and other professors of geology, at the Institute of Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, London, at which meeting I was encouraged to hope that water would be obtained at a depth not far distant from that which the well has already been sunk; they, at the same time, expressing their surprise that the shanklin sand had not been reached before, and also kindly giving me valuable information how to proceed when that stratum was penetrated.

The stratum in which the men are at work at this present time is very soft, so much so that if boring was determined on, it would be requisite to insert iron pipes, which, in my opinion, would be more expensive than the present mode of digging and steining. The depth of the well now attained is 1, feet.

Few organic remains have been found near Brighton. Mantell mentions but a fragment of a bone resembling the femur, and a grinder of a large size, decidedly the latter that of an Asiatic elephant, in the brick-loam at Hove; the jaw of a whale in the shingle bed; the antlers and bones of the red deer in a bed of loam, in sinking a well near the cavalry barracks; the remains of a deer in the diluvium at Copperas Gap, by the Rev.

Hoper; and similar remains in digging a well near the Western Road. With respect to climate, medical men, who have made it their study, have divided the town into three districts. In , Dr. It is free, too, of the marine exhalations to which that district is subject. The air of the east p.

Fogs, night and morning, frequently hang about the middle district, which may be termed the business quarter of the town. After this come the north-eastern districts, including the upper part of the Marine Parade, Kemp Town, and the portions of the town behind them on the north side of the Bristol Road, which are also very much exposed to the cold winds and draughts from the downs.

The central parts of the town, from the Old Steine to St. Further east, towards Kemp Town, the air becomes colder and more bracing, and the draughts from the downs are more keenly felt. I cannot conceive any place enjoying greater natural advantages than Brighton, and it is incumbent on those who think it unhealthy to state from what source the insalubrity can have its origin, always excepting those artificial and preventable causes of disease which it creates within itself.

For upwards of half the year the inhabitants breathe an atmosphere which has traversed the surface of several thousand miles of the great Atlantic Ocean. This at all events must be entirely free from all sources of disease. The staple of the land upon which the town stands, and for several miles round, is composed of chalk and sand, intermixed with flints, with the dip of the strata towards the sea, which, with the absence of any dense foliage in the surrounding district, has the effect of rendering the atmosphere of the place remarkably dry and bracing.

Neither is there any low-lying marsh land, where the fresh and sea water mix and infect the atmosphere, or exposure of mud at the mouths of rivers at low tide, or, in fact, any source of malaria whatever within any distance of the town, which can possibly to any appreciable or injurious extent affect its atmosphere.

The winds from the land side, therefore, are probably almost, if not entirely, as healthy as those from the sea. Brighton has also no tidal harbour, nor any exposure of mud at low tide containing decaying vegetable matter, which at many sea-side places, and some much frequented by the public, is not only very offensive, but very injurious to the health.

The obscurity respecting the etymology of Brighton, or more properly speaking Brighthelmston, is much to be regretted. In the Domesday Book it is written Brighthelmstun , evidently derived from Brighthelm , the name of some person of eminence, to whom it belonged, and tun the Saxon of town or dwelling. Bailey says that the name was given to the town by St. Brighthelm , a Saxon. Skinner says the town was so named from Brighthelm , a canonised bishop of Fontenoy, who lived about the middle of the 10th century.

Stillingfleet and other authorities state that a Saxon bishop of that name resided here during the Heptarchy, and his name was given to the town. The last opinion is most to be relied on, as, when Ella and his three sons—Cimen, Wiencing, and Cisa,—landed in Sussex, at Shoreham, in , Bishop Brighthelm accompanied them; and one of his successors resided at Aldrington, the Portus Adurni , or port of the river Adur, where, near Fishersgate, till within the last forty years, was the entrance to the harbour from the sea , [11] and held a considerable portion of the land thereabout until , when he was killed in battle; but where the battle was fought no mention is made.

Henry IV. Thomas Seynt Clare holds the manor of Brighton with lands and messuages in the same. The queen on the 27th day of Nov. James Charles Michell, who re-published Dr. Domesday book states that two of the three manors of Brighthelmston had been held by Edward the Confessor; but it has been aptly observed, that, notwithstanding, they might not have belonged to that prince; for the Normans, who denounced Harold the Second as an usurper, invariably substituted the name of Edward, when jurors were empannelled, in order to make an accurate return of the several manors within their respective hundreds, putting down that of Harold, as the statutes of the republican parliament of the 17th century are all references to Charles II.

It is therefore fair to presume that the whole, or most of the town and parish belonged to the ancestors of Earl Godwin many generations prior to the Conquest, if not ever since the establishment of the Saxon power in this part of the island. They were styled Thanes , or noblemen of considerable possessions. The only Thane whose name, qualities, and achievements have been made known to us, was Ulnoth or Wolnoth, the father of Earl Godwin and lord of the manor of Brighthelmston.

This nobleman was appointed by Ethelred II. Godwin, his son and successor to the manor, was banished by order of Edward, who took it with other possessions. He regained them by force, and retained them till 17th of April, , when he was suddenly p.

Earl Godwin was succeeded in two of the chief manors by his son Harold, who, upon the death of Edward, in , was chosen king: but, from some secret arrangements between the king and William, duke of Normandy, the latter made a claim which he asserted by force of arms.

He landed at Pevensey. On the 14th of October, , he joined battle with the Normans, and after performing all that valour and judgment could do against a brave enemy, he closed his life in the field of battle, near Hastings, having been pierced in the brain with an arrow. This manor defended itself for six hides, and one yardland. One of the tenants had an aula , or manor-house on his part. The shares of the two others were p. The whole formed but one manor, and contained five ploughlands of arable.

After the conquest, this manor was held by one Widard, under William de Warren. He had one ploughland and a half in his demesne, or immediate possession; and fourteen villeins , and twenty-one bordars , or bordarii , occupiers of cottages, used the three other ploughlands and a half.

It also contained seven acres of meadow, and wood enough to afford pannage , or mast and acorns for twenty-one hogs belonging to the villeins of the manor, three of which the lord was, by the general custom of the county, entitled to.

Lady Amhurst is the present lady of this manor. The manor of Brighthelmston-Lewes was held after the Conquest, by Radulphus, a Norman adventurer, under William de Warren, and defended itself for five hides and a half of land.

Radulphus held in demesne half a carucate, or ploughland, the whole arable land of the manor being three carucates. To this day, if demanded, the fishermen of Brighton pay to this manor six mackerel for each boat, every time they return from mackerel fishing. Charles Scrase Dickens and Mr. Thomas Wisden are the present lords of this manor. He used one ploughland in demesne, and thirteen villeins and eleven bordars used the other. In the reign of Stephen, p.

Somers Clarke is the present lord, and Mrs. Penelope McWhinnie is the present lady of this manor. By a decree of the High Court of Chancery, made on the 21st day of October, , a partition of this manor of Brighthelmston was made between Thomas Friend and Bodycombe Sparrow, the then proprietors of it, and the present lords accordingly possess the soil of it in distinct moieties. Besides the three principal manors, there are within the town and parish two other small manors, viz. Harry Colvill Bridger is the present lord of the manor of Old Shoreham.

It is highly probable, from the surnames of some of the most ancient families in the town of Brighthelmston, the phrases, and the pronunciation of the old natives, and some peculiar customs of the people, that the town had, at some distant period, received a colony of Flemings. This might have happened soon after the conquest, as a great inundation of the sea took place in Flanders about that period; and such of the unfortunate inhabitants of the p.

Being thus settled in Brighthelmston, the Flemings were led by habits and situation, to direct their chief attention to the fishery of the Channel. Besides obtaining a plentiful supply of fresh fish of the best kind and quality for themselves and their inland neighbours, they, every season, cured a great number of herrings, and exported them to various parts of the continent, where the abstinence of Lent, the vigils, and other meagre days, insured them a constant market.

The inhabitants were now classed into landsmen and seamen, or mariners, and they profited respectively by the advantages of their situation. The former, whose dwellings were on the cliff and part of the gentle acclivity behind it, drew health and competence from the fertile soil; while the latter, who resided in two streets beneath the cliff, found a bountiful source of subsistence and profit at the bottom of the sea. In process of time, the mariners and their families, principally descendants from the new comers, the Flemings, had increased in numbers so far as to compose more than two-thirds of the population of the town, and they had a proportionate share of the offices and internal regulation of the parish.

The Flemish, on their arrival, though received in all probability as vassals, found their condition an improvement on the general state- villeinage ; and the indulgence shown to foreigners was eventually extended to the natives; and the disfranchised landholders gradually emerged from the most abject state of feudal dependence, to one less precarious, that of tenants by copy of court roll.

Once registered on the rolls of a manor, with the consent of the lord or his steward, their title became indefeasible and descendible to their heirs, except in case of neglect or violation p.

Thus settled, the husbandmen of Brighthelmston had every inducement to marriage, and they toiled with pleasure in their patrimonial field. The mariner also, freed from feudal caprice, braved the dangers of the deep, not only for his subsistence, but as a future provision for his family; and transmitted to his posterity, controlled by manorial custom, his ship or boat, his cottage, his capstan and garden, and other monuments of his paternal solicitude and industry.

The town being, as now, a member of the port of Shoreham,—all boats of the town register at Shoreham,—was obliged to furnish some seamen for the royal navy; and no other tax or service was imposed upon the inhabitants, till the levying of a poll-tax in the reign of Edward III. In Brighthelmston had become so considerable as to need the public accommodation of a market; and John, the eighth and last Earl de Warren, obtained a charter of Edward III.

The mariners about this time, in the Lower Town, or under Cliff, increasing in number and property, extended their habitations to the Upper Town, and began two streets westward of the Stein, named from their situations, East Street and West Street, forming the inhabited limits of the town in those directions. After East Street and West street had been continued some considerable way towards the north, the landsmen, who were also becoming numerous, found it necessary to build intermediate streets, parallel to those already constructed; and the proprietor of the north laines , finding it more convenient to have their barns, and finally, their own dwellings and the cottages for their workmen, at that extremity of the town, formed North Street.

Most of the ground now occupied by Black Lion street and Ship street, and the intermediate space, are, in all the Court Rolls, called the Hempshares; and were, even after East street and West street were built, plots or gardens for the production of hemp, for the use of the fishermen of the town.

The name of the ropemaker who constructed all the cordage for the supply of the fishery, was Anthony Smith, who, in suffered great persecution from Captain Nicholas Tattersal, a personage who assumed great power p. Smith was more especially the object of his malignity, from having been the occupier of the house, in West street, where the king sojourned preparatory to his flight; he happening to recognise His Majesty, yet having too much loyalty to betray him.

Jealousy actuated him; as he was desirous of claiming all the honour in the royal escape. He in consequence kept all the merits, which were really due to Smith, in the background, and took all the honour to himself, and the reward to. In process of time, as the population increased, and the sea made encroachments on the lower town, two streets were erected on the site of the hemp-shares or gardens. In the most eastern street of these, with one front to the High street,—that which passed along the verge of the Cliff,—stood an Inn, with a Black Lion for its sign; and in the other there was an Inn, with a Ship for its sign.

The two streets of the hemp-shares were soon distinguished by the two signs, and are the present Black-Lion street and Ship street. The Black-Lion Inn on the east side of the street, was converted into a private residence about the beginning of the present century.

The Ship, the oldest tavern in the town, is now, and has been since , known as the Old Ship, to distinguish it from the New Ship, a more recent erection.

Besides the hemp-shares, the ground to the west of the town, which was afterwards brick-yards, and is now termed the Brunswick Square and Terrace district, was devoted to the growing of flax for the use of the fishermen. The prosperity of the town received a check about the middle of the fourteenth century, from the ambitious projects of Edward III.

In the French burnt and plundered most of the towns from Portsmouth to Hastings; but no particular injury to the town is recorded of Brighton, at that period. Their duties were nocturnal, and seldom exacted, unless an immediate descent was apprehended. The watch consisted p.

They were dressed in jackets called hobils, and were mounted on swift horses. The bold stand made against the French, in , when they landed at Rottingdean, was principally by the watch and ward-keepers of the coast, which had been divided into districts, entrusted to the care of some baron, or religious house, by certain commissioners, called Rectores Commitatus.

In the annals of the Prior of Lewes, and the Abbot of Battle, we find that those personages were several times placed at the head of an armed power, to oppose actual or threatened invasion.

Certain borough hundreds were also obliged, under pain of forfeiture or other penalty, to keep the beacons in proper condition, and to fire them at the approach of an enemy, in order to alarm and assemble the inhabitants in the Weald. From the constant alarm of the people and the ruin of war, Brighthelmston generally experienced a considerable share of the public distress; as, besides contributing some of its best mariners for manning the royal fleet, the town was deprived of its trade and fishery.

At this time, Sir Edward Howard, the English Admiral, having made several successful attempts on the coast of Brittany, and being joined by a squadron of ships commanded by Sir Thomas Knivet, went in pursuit of the French fleet, under the command of Admiral Primauget, Knight of Rhodes; the real intention being to destroy the town of Brest.

The French fleet, consisting of thirty-nine ships, was in the harbour of Brest. But the French soon recovered from their panic, the two fleets met, and a furious engagement ensued. This dreadful scene suspended the action between the other ships; but after some time, the French ship blew up, and in its explosion destroyed the English ship.

While the conflict was at its height, and the deck was streaming with the blood of his brave companions, Sir Edward was thrust with a half-pike into the sea and perished. He accordingly, in the night time, landed some men, who plundered it of everything valuable that they could remove, set many houses on fire, and wantonly slew many of the inhabitants.

The rest flying in terror and confusion different ways, the country became alarmed as far as Lewes and the Weald. Sir Thomas Howard, brother of Sir Edward, whom he succeeded, soon after, with Sir John Wallop, made a descent on the coast of Normandy, and desolated no less than twenty-one towns and villages, inhabited by people who never did, and perhaps never wished to do, any injury to their fellow men on this wide the Channel.

Such is the fortune, and such are the advantages and distinctions of the royal game of war. Holinshead mentions an attack upon the town by the French, about this time; and there is the probability that he refers to the same invasion, as he terms it a nocturnal visit from some p. The certain archers that kept the watch followed Prior Jehan to the sea, and shot so fast that they beat the galley men from the shore, and wounded many in the fleet: to which Prior Jehan was constrained to wade, and was shot in the face with an arrow, so that he lost one of his eyes, and was like to have died of the hurt, and therefore he offered his image of wax before our Lady at Bullogne, with the English arrow in the face, for a miracle.

According to the Burrell MSS. In , the beacon watches were ordered to be discharged till further orders. When king Alfred divided England into shires, the shires into hundreds, and the hundreds into tithings, tithing men or headboroughs— p.

Under the Saxon constitution, Brighton had two headboroughs; a proof that its population, even then, was far from being inconsiderable. These headboroughs sat alternately or together, at the borough court, at which the decenners, or free, or frankpledges friborgs as had no causes to be tried there, attended as jurors or sworn assessors to the presiding officer.

These free-pledges were the origin of the Society of Twelve, which continued in Brighthelmston to the commencement of the present century.

By the statute of Winchester, 13th Edward I. The boroughs of Preston Prestetune and Patcham Patchame , which were originally hundreds of themselves, were, under Edward I. The boroughs of Ovingdean and Rottingdean were then united to the small hundred of Falmer, under the name of Evensmere.

Wellsbourne took its name from a stream which till within the last few years ran, in the winter time, nearly the whole length of the hundred. It rose near the upper end of Patcham street, and entered the sea at the Pool,—Pool Valley,—in Brighthelmston.

Within the last thirty years it burst out with so large a current as to inundate the Level to the north of the town, and even the greatest part of the Stein. In the spring of it laid the north of the town under water.

After the last inundation, in the winter of —8, a large sewer, called the Northern Drain, was laid down from the northern boundary of the London Road, to the sea, its outlet being in front of the Albion Hotel.

The source of this stream or bourne, being the well at Patcham, it had its name from that circumstance, and lent it to the said hundred. The leet or law day, the view of frankpledge for this hundred, p.

The Constable of Brighthelmston was always chosen by and out of the Twelve of the town. The headborough, afterwards styled the constable of the borough of Deane or Patcham, was nominated in rotation for that office, according to the particular lands he held within the borough.

The constable of Brighthelmston served at Quarter Sessions, musters, and other public services for the whole hundred, the constable of the Deane being only his assistant or deputy within the borough of the Deane or Patcham. There was also chosen at the leet or law day for this hundred, which is in the deanery of Lewes, an ale-conner and a searcher or sealer of leather.

Since the town became incorporated, in , no headboroughs have been chosen; but Mr James Martin, who was appointed at the last annual Court Leet of the Earl of Abergavenny, by the steward of the Leet, F. Gell, Esq. The following is a list of the Constables who have served the Hundred as far as the records of them are made in the Town Books, or other proofs are given:—.

James Martin, who continues to be the High Constable of the Hundred. Ackerson was chosen, although Mr. Williams was the elect. In consequence of the perpetual jealousies and strife between the fishermen and landsmen, a commission was sent to Brighton, in , to settle every difference, assess the town rates, and arrange the public concerns of the parish. The number of landsmen who at that time paid parochial rates and taxes, was ; while the number of fishermen amounted to The decision of the commissioners gave satisfaction to all parties till , when a fresh arrangement was entered into.

Attree, Clarke, and Howlett, solicitors, Ship Street. It is in black letter, on parchment, and is in a state of good preservation, although the ink, from age, is very yellow. An engrossed copy in corrected modern authority, is deposited with it, and is as follows:—. In the Manors of Brighthelmston , as Parcel of the Barony of Lewes , the following Feudal Customs , partly of Saxon origin , but established for the most part by the Norman settlers in this country , have , by immemorial usage , governed the Courts there :—.

The lands of copyholders in these manors are descendible, on death, to the youngest son, or to the youngest daughter if there be no son, and so on to the youngest relatives collaterally. The widow of a purchaser of a copyhold estate to which he has been p.

But if the husband, even on his death-bed, make a surrender of his copyhold, the widow shall not have her bench , nor the widow of a purchaser unadmitted, nor the widow of a tenant in reversion.

But they the freeholders were not to be of the homage, because they performed service at juries at the barony court , held from three weeks to three weeks at Lewes ; from which service the copyholders were exempt. The defaulters at each court were to be essoyned excused or assirred fined in proportion to their offence.

Surrenders made out of court, and presented at the next general court holden for the manor, are good. Destroyed by the Mongols in , it soon recovered its former prosperity and received a large influx of German colonists. The bishop obtained the title of a prince of the Empire in The Bohemian kings bestowed various privileges on Breslau, which soon began to extend its commerce in all directions, while owing to increasing wealth the citizens took up a more independent attitude.

After his death in it again became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest of Silesia to the Habsburgs when in Ferdinand, afterwards emperor, was chosen king of Bohemia.

Having passed almost undisturbed through the periods of the Reformation and the Thirty Years’ War, Breslau was compelled to own the authority of Frederick the Great in It was, however, recovered by the Austrians in , but was regained by Frederick after his victory at Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia, although it was held for a few days by the French in after the battle of Jena, and again in after the battle of Bautzen. In March this monarch issued from Breslau his stirring appeals to the Prussians, An mein Volk and An mein Kriegesheer , and the city was the centre of the Prussian preparations for the campaign which ended at Leipzig.

After the Prussian victory at Sadowa in , William I. Silisiae,” vol. The Austrian part of Neisse still belongs to the bishop of Breslau, who also still bears the title of prince bishop. In he went to the French theatre at St Petersburg, where for eight years he played important parts with ever-increasing reputation. Bressant retired in , and died on the 23rd of January During his professorship at the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his pupils.

It is a plain varying from to ft. Heaths and coppice alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and marshes are numerous, especially in the north.

The soil is a gravelly clay but moderately fertile, and cattle-raising is largely carried on. The region is, however, more especially celebrated for its table poultry. The inhabitants preserve a distinctive but almost obsolete costume, with a curious head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the Bresse Bressane , comprises the northern portion of the department of Ain.

It was not till the first half of the 15th century that the province, with Bourg as its capital, was founded as such. In it was ceded to France by the treaty of Lyons, after which it formed together with the province of Bugey first a separate government and afterwards part of the government of Burgundy. The town is situated on an eminence overlooking the Dolo, a tributary of the Argenton.

It is the centre of a cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and has important markets; the manufacture of wooden type and woollen goods is carried on. Bressuire has two buildings of interest: the church of Notre-Dame, which, dating chiefly from the 12th and 15th centuries, has an imposing tower of the Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the lords of [v. The whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins in Poitou. Bressuire is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance.

Among the disasters suffered at various times by the town, its capture from the English and subsequent pillage by French troops under du Guesclin in is the most memorable. Population town, 71,; commune, 85, It is situated to the north of a magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by the river Penfeld,—the part of the town on the left bank being regarded as Brest proper, while the part on the right is known as Recouvrance.

There are also extensive suburbs to the east of the town. The hill-sides are in some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town has to be effected by flights of steps and the second or third storey of one house is often on a level with the ground storey of the next. Running along the shore to the south of the town is the Cours d’Ajot, one of the finest promenades of its kind in France, named after the engineer who constructed it.

It is planted with trees and adorned with marble statues of Neptune and Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. The castle with its donjon and seven towers 12th to the 16th centuries , commanding the entrance to the river, is the only interesting building in the town. Brest is the capital of one of the five naval arrondissements of France. The naval port, which is in great part excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld; it comprises gun-foundries and workshops, magazines, shipbuilding yards and repairing docks, and employs about workmen.

There are also large naval barracks, training ships and naval schools of various kinds, and an important naval hospital. Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, two naval tribunals, and a tribunal of maritime commerce. The commercial port, which is separated from the town itself by the Cours d’Ajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer harbour; it is protected by jetties to the east and west and by a breakwater on the south.

In the number of vessels entered was with a tonnage of 67,, and cleared with a tonnage of 61, The chief were wine, coal, timber, mineral tar, fertilizers and lobsters and crayfish. Besides its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has flour-mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and manufactures of blocks, candles, chemicals from sea-weed , boots, shoes and linen.

Brest communicates by submarine cable with America and French West Africa. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation with a maximum length of 14 m. Brest is a fortress of the first class. In John of Montfort gave it up to the English, and it did not finally leave their hands till Its medieval importance was great enough to give rise to the saying, “He is not duke of Brittany who is not lord of Brest. The advantages of the situation for a seaport town were first recognized by Richelieu, who in constructed a harbour with wooden wharves, which soon became a station of the French navy.

Colbert changed the wooden wharves for masonry and otherwise improved the post, and Vauban’s fortifications followed in During the 18th century the fortifications and the naval importance of the town continued to develop. In an English squadron under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably defeated in attempting a landing; but in , during the revolutionary war, the French fleet, under Villaret de Joyeuse, was as thoroughly beaten in the same place by the English admiral Howe.

Berestie and Berestov , a strongly fortified town of Russia, in the government of Grodno, m. It contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded in the 16th century as the first in Europe, and is the seat of an Armenian and of a Greek Catholic bishop; the former has authority over the Armenians throughout the whole country. The town carries on an extensive trade in grain, flax, hemp, wood, tar and leather.

First mentioned in the beginning of the 11th century, Brest-Litovsk was in laid waste by the Mongols and was not rebuilt till ; its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic Knights in ; and in the end of the 15th century the whole town met a similar fate at the hands of the khan of the Crimea.

In , and again in , the town was captured by the Swedes; in it was the scene of Suvarov’s victory over the Polish general Sierakowski; in it was added to the Russian empire. The Brest-Litovsk or King’s canal 50 m. He was only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV.

He arranged to be temporarily absent from his post at the time of the palace revolution by which Catherine II. In he was sent to Stockholm, and subsequently represented his government at Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until , when he was recalled to become minister of the king’s household. In this capacity he introduced considerable reforms in prison administration. A close friend of Marie Antoinette, he presently came into collision with Calonne, who demanded his dismissal in His influence with the king and queen, especially with the latter, remained unshaken, and on Necker’s dismissal on the 11th of July , Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister.

His distrust of the king’s brothers and his defence of Louis XVI. Breteuil himself was the object of violent attacks from the party of the princes, who asserted that he persisted in exercising powers which had been revoked by Louis XVI. After the execution of Marie Antoinette he retired into private life near Hamburg, only returning to France in He died in Paris on the 2nd of November See the memoirs of Bertrand de Molleville 2 vols.

Daudet, Coblentz, , forming part of his Hist. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissement and canton of Chartres, commune of Sours , which gave its name to a celebrated treaty concluded there on the 8th of May , between Edward III.

The exactions of the English, who wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages claimed by them in the treaty of London, made negotiations difficult, and the discussion of terms begun early in April lasted more than a month. By virtue of this treaty Edward III. John II. On his side the king of England gave up the duchies of Normandy and Touraine, the countships of Anjou and Maine, and the suzerainty of Brittany and of Flanders.

As a guarantee for the payment of his ransom, John the Good gave as hostages two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. This treaty was ratified and sworn to by the two kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th of October , at Calais.

At the same time were signed the special conditions relating to each important article of the treaty, and the renunciatory clauses in which the kings abandoned their rights over the territory they had yielded to one another. See Rymer’s Foedera , vol. Luce, vol.

Paris, vol. His artistic gifts being manifest at an early age, he was sent in to Ghent, to study under the historical painter de Vigne, and in to Baron Wappers at Antwerp. Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His first efforts were in historical subjects: “Saint Piat preaching in Gaul”; then, under the influence of the revolution of , he represented “Misery and Despair. Thenceforward he was essentially a painter of rustic life, especially in the province of Artois, which he quitted only three times for short excursions: in to Provence, and in and to Brittany, whence he derived some of his happiest studies of religious scenes.

His numerous subjects may be divided generally into four classes: labour, rest, rural festivals and religious festivals. Breton was elected to the Institut in on the death of Baudry. In he was made commander of the Legion of Honour, and in foreign member of the Royal Academy of London. Nicholas Breton was probably born at the “capitall mansion house” in Red Cross Street, in the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father’s will.

There is no official record of his residence at the university, but the diary of the Rev. Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in and was “once of Oriel College. He is supposed to have died shortly after the publication of his last work, Fantastickes Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke, and wrote much in her honour until , when she seems to have withdrawn her favour. It is probably safe to supplement the meagre record of his life by accepting as autobiographical some of the letters signed N.

His work consists of religious and pastoral poems, satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems are sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind. His praise of the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he was a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an ardent Protestant.

Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work is to be found in his pastoral poetry. His Passionate Shepheard is full of sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in this book—”Who can live in heart so glad As the merrie country lad”—is well known; with some other of Breton’s daintiest poems, among them the lullaby, “Come little babe, come silly soule,” [1] —it is incorporated in A.

Bullen’s Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances His keen observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, Wits Trenchmour , “a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler,” and in his Fantastickes , a series of short prose pictures of the months, the Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the customs of the times.

Most of Breton’s books are very rare and have great bibliographical value. His works, with the exception of some belonging to private owners, were collected by Dr A. Grosart in the [v. Sir Philip Sidney’s Ourania by N. Enlisting on the 24th of May , he served against the French in Valencia and Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal on the 8th of March He obtained a minor post in the civil service under the liberal government, and on his discharge determined to earn his living by writing for the stage.

His industry was astonishing: between October and November , he composed thirty-nine plays, six of them original, the rest being translations or recasts of classic masterpieces. In he published a translation of Tibullus, and acquired by it an unmerited reputation for scholarship which secured for him an appointment as sub-librarian at the national library. But the theatre claimed him for its own, and with the exception of Elena and a few other pieces in the fashionable romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes.

His only serious check occurred in ; the former liberal had grown conservative with age, and in La Ponchada he ridiculed the National Guard. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy, quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the 8th of November He is the author of some three hundred and sixty original plays, twenty-three of which are in prose. No Spanish dramatist of the nineteenth century approaches him in comic power, in festive invention, and in the humorous presentation of character, while his metrical dexterity is unique.

In he entered the university of Leipzig, where he studied theology for four years. After some years of hesitation he resolved to be ordained, and in he passed with great distinction the examination for candidatus theologiae , and attracted the regard of F.

Reinhard, author of the System der christlichen Moral , then court-preacher at Dresden, who became his warm friend and patron during the remainder of his life. In Bretschneider was Privat-docent at the university of Wittenberg, where he lectured on philosophy and theology. During this time he wrote his work on the development of dogma, Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe nach den symbolischen Schriften der evangelisch-lutherischen und reformirten Kirche , 4th ed.

On the advance of the French army under Napoleon into Prussia, he determined to leave Wittenberg and abandon his university career. Through the good offices of Reinhard, he became pastor of Schneeberg in Saxony In he was promoted to the office of superintendent of the church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to decide, in accordance with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belonging to the department of ecclesiastical law.

But the climate did not agree with him, and his official duties interfered with his theological studies. With a view to a change he took the degree of doctor of theology in Wittenberg in August In he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha, where he remained until his death in This was the great period of his literary activity.

In was published his treatise on the gospel of St John, entitled Probabilia de Evangelii el Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli indole et origine , which attracted much attention. In it he collected with great fulness and discussed with marked moderation the arguments against Johannine authorship. This called forth a number of replies.

To the astonishment of every one, Bretschneider announced in the preface to the second edition of his Dogmatik in , that he had never doubted the authenticity of the gospel, and had published his Probabilia only to draw attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete defence of its genuineness. Bretschneider remarks in his autobiography that the publication of this work had the effect of preventing his appointment as successor to Karl C.

His greatest contribution to the science of exegesis was his Lexicon Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti , 3rd ed. This work was valuable for the use which its author made of the Greek of the Septuagint, of the Old and New Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of the apostolic fathers, in illustration of the language of the New Testament.

In he published Apologie der neuern Theologie des evangelischen Deutschlands. Hugh James Rose had published in England a volume of sermons on the rationalist movement The State of the Protestant Religion in Germany , in which he classed Bretschneider with the rationalists; and Bretschneider contended that he himself was not a rationalist in the ordinary sense of the term, but a “rational supernaturalist. His dogmatic position seems to be intermediate between the extreme school of naturalists, such as Heinrich Paulus, J.

Strauss and F. Baur on the other. Recognizing a supernatural element in the Bible, he nevertheless allowed to the full the critical exercise of reason in the interpretation of its dogmas cp.

Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology , pp. See his autobiography, Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von K. Bretschneider Gotha, , of which a translation, with notes, by Professor George E. It has some manufactories of machinery and japanned goods, and a considerable trade in timber and livestock.

Bretten was the birthplace of Melanchthon , and in addition to a [v. In the Chronicle the title is given to Ecgbert, king of the English, “the eighth king that was Bretwalda,” and retrospectively to seven kings who ruled over one or other of the English kingdoms.

The seven names are copied from Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica , and it is interesting to note that the last king named, Oswiu of Northumbria, lived years before Ecgbert. It has been assumed that these seven kings exercised a certain superiority over a large part of England, but if such superiority existed it is certain that it was extremely vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of organization.

Another theory is that Bretwalda refers to a war-leadership, or imperium , over the English south of the Humber, and has nothing to do with Britons or Britannia. In support of this explanation it is urged that the title is given in the Chronicle to Ecgbert in the year in which he “conquered the kingdom of the Mercians and all that was south of the Humber.

See E. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest , vol. Oxford, ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History , vol. Oxford, ; J. Green, The Making of England , vol. London, ; F. Rhys, Celtic Britain London, After receiving instruction in painting from Koek, whose daughter he married, he spent some time in France and Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the Academy in He finally settled at Brussels and died there.

The subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous figures, like those of D. Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that master, he has abundant spirit and comic power.

He is said to have died about the year at the age of sixty; other accounts give as the date of his death. His son Pieter , the younger , known as “Hell” Breughel, was born in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his “Christ bearing the Cross” is in the museum.

Another son Jan c. He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruits, and afterwards acquired considerable reputation by his landscapes and sea-pieces. After residing long at Cologne he travelled into Italy, where his landscapes, adorned with small figures, were greatly admired. He left a large number of pictures, chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great skill.

Rubens made use of Breughel’s hand in the landscape part of several of his small pictures—such as his “Vertumnus and Pomona,” the “Satyr viewing the Sleeping Nymph,” and the “Terrestrial Paradise. The use of the word is mainly confined to a commission, or official document, giving to an officer in the army a permanent, as opposed to a local and temporary, rank in the service higher than that he holds substantively in his corps.

In the British army “brevet rank” exists only above the rank of captain, but in the United States army it is possible to obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In the early days of Christian worship, when Jewish custom was followed, the Bible furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited.

The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church bishop or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the psalms.

This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use.

Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office:—the Antiphonarium , the Old and New Testaments, the Passionarius liber and the Legendarius dealing respectively with martyrs and saints , the Homiliarius homilies on the Gospels , the Sermologus collection of sermons and the works of the Fathers, besides, of course, the Psalterium and the Collectarium.

To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a Breviarium Psalterii made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called, however, only dates from the 11th century; the earliest MS.

Gregory VII. These preaching friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX. Finally, Nicholas III. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own. The only other types that merit notice are:— 1 the Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son; 2 the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which they derive from St Ambrose see Liturgy.

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Redakcja dlaStudenta. You get up and keep trying. You create them. He once stated, If you want a thing done well, do it yourself. Today, calling someone a Jack of all trades is usually a jab because it implies that their knowledge is superficial. This also reminds me of a precept by Sir Edwin Sandys, a politician who helped establish Jamestown, Virginia. That no man shall go to sea with tucknet to fish for plaice before Shrove Tuesday yearly, upon pain of forfeiture of ten shillings for every time so doing.

If there shall at any time any boat of this town be cast away through the default of the master and the company, then the master and his company to be answerable to the owner for the same boat. Every master of every boat in every voyage shall divide, receive, and take up the said quarter share accordingly, as it hath been used heretofore, and is before ordered, and not otherwise; and the same shall well and truly pay yearly, upon the feast of St.

Stephen , to the Churchwardens for the time being, in the place where it has been accustomably paid in former times: and if any master in any boat, in any voyage, shall not divide and take up as aforesaid, or shall detain the said quarter share, and not pay the same unto the Churchwardens at the end of every voyage, at the place above-mentioned, before the feast of the Epiphany yearly then next following, that then every such master, for every time so doing, shall forfeit the double value of the same quarter share that he so detained, or not divided, or not taketh up.

If there be in any tucker or cock in the time of Tucknet Fare or Cock Fare , any more than one master during the voyage, then the owner or first master of any such tucker or cock shall account for and pay the whole quarter share due for all that voyage, and therewithal shall deliver unto the said Churchwardens, a note in writing, of the names of all the other masters in that voyage, upon pain of forfeiting twenty shillings by the owner. There shall be yearly, at the time accustomed, two substantial fishermen and one such landman, chosen by the consent of the constable, the vicar or curate, and the chief of the town, for Churchwardens.

The same Churchwardens, nor any of them, shall not employ nor disburse any of the money to be kept by the sea-faring and land wardens, to any other use than for the reparation of the church, and for necessary public charges for the town, without the consent of the constable, the vicar or curate, and six substantial men of the parish, first had in writing, of which six, four shall be fishermen and two landmen, upon pain of paying all sums of money laid out contrary to this order, at and upon the charges of the said wardens.

The same Churchwardens shall yearly, at the time accustomed, yield up a true and perfect account, in writing, of all receipts, reprises, and charges for all that p. Every forfeiture before or hereafter mentioned growing by reason of any matter pertaining to the sea or fishing, shall be paid unto the wardens being fishermen, and every other forfeiture unto the land wardens.

Whosoever shall not, within five days next after demand in that case by the wardens, or any of them, for the time being, to be made, pay unto the said wardens, or one of them, all such of the said forfeitures as they then from time to time, at any time hereafter, shall have made, then his or their name or names not paying such forfeitures as aforesaid, shall be signified in writing under the hands of the constable, the vicar or curate, and the said wardens, unto the Commissioners, to be bound to appear before the lords of the Council.

The rents, profits, and commodities of the mill and town house, and of all other lands, tenements, and hereditaments which now do belong and appertain, or hereafter shall belong and appertain to the said town of Brighthelmston , shall be yearly paid and answered unto the churchwardens; and that the same, and every part thereof, shall and may, from time to time, be disposed, demised, and let out to farm, for the term of seven years at the most, by the said constables and wardens, so as always the same be done to the best profit and commodity of the said town, upon pain that every one therein offending, shall forfeit five pounds, and besides to answer for his offence in that behalf before the said commissioners.

The same churchwardens, shall have in readiness at all times hereafter, in some convenient place in Brighthelmston , to be laid up in store, and safely kept, four barrels of powder, and forty round shot, and ten chain shot for every great piece. There shall be selected by the said commissioners out of the ancientest, gravest, and wisest inhabitants, eight fishermen and four landsmen, for assistants to the constable in every public cause, whereof every one shall be ready, and give his attendance upon the constable as oft as need shall require: and whosoever shall presume to call together any assembly, to the intent to practice or put in use any manner, or device, or art touching the government of the said town, without the privity, consent, and command of the said constable and assistants shall forfeit for every time so doing, forty shillings.

And to the intent that the said Twelve grave and wise men may have continuance, therefore, upon the death or removing of any one of them, it shall be lawful for the constable, and the residue of the said Twelve , or for the most part of them, to choose in supply such other of the said town, as by them, or the more part of them, shall be thought meet, provided that such choice p.

If any man hath heretofore built, erected, or set up any wall, shed, or any such like thing whatsoever, to the annoyance of the market place, or of the block house there, and shall not, upon warning given him by the constable, or his deputy for the time being, pull down or remove away the same within ten days after such warning given, that then he shall forfeit five pounds, and be further punished by discretion of the commissioners.

Forasmuch, as the town is overcharged with the multitude of poor people, which daily are thought to increase by means of receiving under-tenants, lodging of strangers, and the disorder of tippling-houses, and that the constable cannot, without further assistance, take upon him the whole oversight and charge of all the parts of the town in this behalf, it is thought meet that every one of the Twelve shall have assigned upon him some street or circuit near his dwelling-house, where he shall, as deputy to the constable, have special charge for the keeping of good order; and especially to see that the order for the avoidance of under tenants, be duly observed; and that none lodge or keep tippling houses.

All the acts, receipts, reprises, and charges and accounts of the town, shall, from time to time, as they are had, made, and done, be entered into a register book by the clerk for that purpose, by the constable, vicar, and churchwardens for the time being, to be chosen.

The master and owner, or one of them, of every boat, in every voyage, at every sharing and account, without further delay, shall deliver up into the custody of the churchwardens, or one of them, or of one or more indifferently to be deputed or appointed by the said vicar, and churchwardens, the said half-share and quarter-share, without diminution or retention thereof, to be by the said wardens, or him or them so deputed, safely kept until St. If any questions, doubt, or ambiguity, shall hereafter happen to arise about any of the said orders, or the pains therein contained, then the same to be expounded and interpreted by the said commissioners, or any of them.

Buckhurst , Richard Shelley. The signatures of some of the principal inhabitants follow on the next page; but it will be seen by the signs, or characters, affixed to those who could not inscribe their names, that education had made but little progress amongst them, John Slater, Bartholomew Bowredge, Stephen Pyper, William Wollay, Christopher Ingelard, Deryk Carver, and J. Duconde, the younger, being the only persons who could sign their names, and their writing even, is of a most inferior description.

The names are:—. Duconde, younger. It is conjectured by some antiquarians that the above marks are symbols of the trade or occupation of those who assented to the foregoing recited orders; their opinion being formed from the circumstance of Stoneham, the constable, being a ship carpenter, and attaching a hatchet to his name; and for the same reason the supposition is that Oston, from his sign was a butcher, Good, a wheelwright, p.

The rest seem wholly unintelligible. In the year , Lord Buckhurst and Mr. Shelley made a new order concerning the penalty falling on the owner or lessor of any house let without the written consent of the constable and churchwardens, which was henceforth to be levied from the under-tenant, as well as from the said owner or lessee. And in the year , they made another order, which subjected absentees, who owned houses or any other tenements within the parish, to contribute to the public charges of the said parish, in proportion to their possessions there, as if they were residents.

In case of contumacious resistance or neglect of the said orders, the constable, or his deputy, and the churchwardens, or any two of them, of which the constable or his deputy being one, were authorised by the above-named commissioners, to imprison such as offended in that particular until they shall be contented to observe and keep the same.

It is concluded and agreed between the said fishermen and landmen, the day and year above mentioned, that they, the said fishermen, shall yearly make as they have done time out of mind, a quarter of a share out of every fishing boat in every fishing voyage; and the same so being made, shall yearly and every year pay, at the end of every voyage, unto the fishermen churchwardens for the time being, without diminution or deduction, the said quarter share, to be by them and the other churchwarden, kept and employed unto the only and proper use of the town in the common town box, until the new constable shall be chosen yearly.

It is agreed between the said landmen and fishermen above said, that the said landmen shall yearly and every year pay and bring unto the said common town-box, in or upon the second day of February, commonly called Candlemas Day , yearly, half so much money [40] as the aforesaid quarter share shall amount unto; there to be by all the said churchwardens kept and employed unto the general and public use of the town.

It is further ordered by and between the said fishermen and landmen, that if it shall happen that the said quarter share and the land contribution will not at any time amount and countervail the whole charge that shall arise and grow by reason of any extraordinary charge happening, that then the constable and churchwardens, and six other of the said inhabitants shall tax, rate, and cess all the said inhabitants proportionably, every one according to their estate and ability.

It is also agreed between the said fishermen and landmen that the churchwardens, every year, shall collect and gather and bring in unto the common town-box the said quarter share, and the warders for sea causes to collect and gather it; and the land-warden being with one of the sea-wardens shall also yearly, and every year, bring into the said common town-box the rate or taxation of the other inhabitants not being fishermen; which rate or taxation every year ought to amount to half so much as the said quarter of a share doth yearly; and also shall gather, receive, and take up all rents and other land profits belonging to the town, as the rent of the town-house, town mills, and Bartholomews, which, being so received, shall yearly bring into the said town box, there to be kept up to the general use of the town.

It is further agreed between the said fishermen and landmen, that the constable of the said town shall yearly have for and towards his labour and pains taken in that behalf, and for and towards his charges and expenses, the sum of twenty-five shillings, eight pence, of lawful money of England , to be paid unto him out of the said common town-box, and also that every constable, whether he be a landman or a fisherman, shall yearly have, and quietly enjoy, to his own use, without any let, molestation, or trouble, one horse lease.

It is also ordered between the said fishermen and the said landmen, p. For as much as the town is overcharged with the multitude of poor people, which daily are thought to increase by means of receiving under tenants, lodging and harbouring of strangers, and the great disorder of tippling-houses; and that the constable cannot without further assistance, take upon himself the whole oversight and charge of all the parts of the town; in this behalf, it is thought meet that every one of the said Twelve shall have assigned unto him some place, street, or circuit of the said town, near about his dwelling house, where he shall, as deputy to the constable, have special charge for the keeping of good order; and especially to see that the order for the avoiding under tenants be duly observed and kept; and that none lodge or keep tippling without license.

If any man p. Whosoever, being a landman, husbandman, artificer, or inhabitant, or every other occupier of land or tenements of and in the said town, that shall not yearly, before the feast day of the Purification of St. Mary , pay unto the Churchwardens for the time being, all such sum or sums of money as he or they shall be cessed, rated or taxed, shall for every time so doing, forfeit the double value thereof.

If any owner or lessee of any house in Brighthelmston, admit any tenant or tenants, under-tenant or under-tenants, into his said house, except the said tenant or tenants shall, by the opinion of the constable and the churchwardens in writing first to be set down, be thought of sufficient ability to maintain himself and his family without burdening the town, then the owner and lessee shall, for every month that any such tenant, not being estimated as aforesaid, shall inhabit or dwell in his house, to forfeit unto the use of the poor of the said town, ten shillings.

That whereas it is before ordered, that the owner and lessee of any house in Brighthelmston , in case he admitted any under-tenant, without the consent of the constable and churchwardens, first had in writing, shall forfeit monthly during the abode or inhabiting of any such under-tenant not being approved as aforesaid, monthly , ten shillings.

Now forasmuch as the said penalties cannot conveniently be levied of such owners as are not resident or abiding within the town, and that the town is more burdened and charged with poor than heretofore it hath been, it is now further ordered, that the penalties for every default contrary to the said order, shall be extended in all points as well against the under-tenants, as against the said lessee or owner.

The commissioners in , only investigated and affixed publicity and order to those customs: and their subsequent orders to the inhabitants, were no more than what a bench of justices may issue at the present day. The independent style of the ancient fishermen and landmen in the second book, seems to be that of men who were conscious of a prescriptive right of legislation in certain matters within their own parish: and the Saxon constitution, whose equitable and benign spirit still feebly pervades what we now call the British Constitution, granted the same right to every parish all over England.

But the customary existence of twelve assistants and advisers to the constable has ceased, though the occasion for which they were first instituted still remains, nay, increases commensurately with the population of the town. The ancient society of the twelve shall therefore be revived.

That such a society did once exist, by custom, cannot be denied: and the mere neglect of a custom for ever so many years is no deseasance of the right to exercise it at any subsequent period. But its revival shall not be for the creation or benefit of a party. Political equality is the birth-right of every Briton; and no civil power can be lawful which emanated not originally from the assent of society, and is invariably exercised for the public good.

The Twelve therefore shall be chosen by ballot at a public meeting of all the inhabitants, and every future vacancy in that body filled by public election in the same manner.

The gentleman who presides at present at the court leet of the town, there is every reason to suppose, would cheerfully ratify so respectable an election; and the police of so populous a parish would, in future, be managed with signal p. As the letter of the act seems to confine it to the limits of the town, the sagacity of litigation may discover that the buildings erected since the year , in the then common fields and environs of Brighthelmston, could not have been in contemplation of the framers of the act, inasmuch as those buildings were not then in esse.

But as there never were any fixed boundaries to the town, as far as continuous buildings and population reach within the parish, so far, I conceive, shall the town, and consequently the power of the commissioners, be admitted always to extend. Otherwise, indeed, the act would be abortive and absurd. These commissioners were originally sixty-four in number, and constituted of the most respectable inhabitants in the town.

Many vacancies by death and removal, have since occurred, and been very properly filled by election among the existing members. Yet I am so fully assured of the evil tendency in general, as well as the injustice of political monopoly of every kind, that I regret the right of election on those occasions had not vested in the inhabitants at large. In summer, Brighthelmston too frequently becomes the chief receptacle of the vice and dissipation p.

Its population then is upwards of ten thousand, and only one constable and two headboroughs to preserve the order and safety of the town amidst such a medley. Were there twelve more of the most active and intelligent inhabitants of the town, united with them in directing and strengthening its police, the careful parent would then have less reason to fear the gambler for his son, or the debauchee for his daughter.

The constable of Brighthelmston had such a society to assist him when it was but an obscure fishing town: the propriety of reviving the same, at this period of its popularity and splendour, I leave every thinking inhabitant of the place to consider and enforce. Upon the general survey made throughout England, by order of King Alfred, the tenantry land of Brighthelmston, was, like the estates in general, in other parishes of the kingdom, planned and plotted out; and from time to time, down to the present date, the possessions of the different land-owners, have, from various changes in the proprietorship, been re-measured and set out; and such a procedure is termed taking the terrier.

Dooms-day Book has it: Statutum de admensuratione terrarum. Dooms-day Book is a book that was made by order of William the Conqueror, in which all the estates of the kingdom are registered.

It consists of two volumes, which are deposited at Westminster, in the chapter-house; where they may be consulted on paying the fee of 6s. It was begun in , and not completed till There is a copy of it in the library of the dean and chapter of Exeter. One leaf of it was discovered some years since at Nettlecombe, in Somersetshire, a seat of Sir John Trevelyan, Bart, who sent it to the dean and chapter. There is a story extant in connexion with finding this leaf.

In a room at Nettlecombe, p. It happened on one occasion when the deeds of the estate had to be referred to by the solicitor of the family, Mr. Leigh, that the remarkable incident of the window was mentioned to him; as the family parchments and papers were actually deposited in a strong chest in that very room.

Being a person of a superstitious turn of mind, and of antiquarian research, he conceived the idea that amongst the accumulation of musty deeds, there was one which would give the solution to the strange mystery.

A general overhauling therefore, of the contents of the old oak chest was made; but nothing of any moment was discovered, save a dingy leaf of some book, which seemed to have no connection whatever with the rest of the papers. This proved to be the long lost and frequently sought for leaf of the Exeter Dooms-day Book. The story continues, that the square of glass was that day repaired; and the next morning not only was it found to be broken, with the three drops of blood sprinkled on the sash, but upon the lid of the old oak chest, having filled its mission, lay dead a pure white dove.

Ever after the restored window remained uninjured. There are besides, portions called White Hawk, and Church Hill. Some of these p. The most concise plan is a map of the whole parish, with elaborate references. For the convenience of cultivation, a Terrier was taken, agreeable to a resolution passed by the principal landholders, at a meeting which was held at the Old Ship, on the 26th day of March, , that by drawing lots the owners of several pauls in different parts of a furlong, might have their lands together in one piece in each furlong.

The arrangement did not in the least alter the proprietorship of the several pauls. The following is the whole content of the Parish, as taken by Mr John Marchant, surveyor, May 12th, —.

Furlong, near West Fields [47]. South side of the White Hawk [48a]. The chief record of them is respecting the. And they say that the ix th part of garbel is worth this year, there, ix pounds, viii shillings, and x pence from the community of the town. Also the ix th part of fleeces there is worth xxvi shillings and vi pence, and the ix th part of lambs there, is worth vi shillings and viii pence. Also they say, that the ix th part of garbel and fleeces of the prior or Lewes there, is worth, vii shillings and viii pence.

Also the ix th part of garbel and fleeces of the prior of Michelham, is worth xxx shillings and iv pence. And so is the sum of the whole ix th of garbel, fleeces, and lambs, this year, xiii pounds. Also they say that the ix th part aforesaid cannot answer nor attain to the taxation of the church aforesaid; for that xl acres of land are drowned by the sea for ever, which were worth per annum xl shillings.

And also clx acres of land in the common plain, which have been deficient there this year in corn sown, to the p. And because the wool cannot be sold as it was wont, the value of xiii shillings and iv pence is deficient.

And also the lambs there will be deficient in the pasture this year, by defect of value vi shillings and viii pence. And the vicar has there the first-prints of one dove-house, value ii shillings. And the same has there in offerings, small tithes of geese, sucking pigs, honey, milk, cheese, calves, and eggs, and other small tithes which are worth yearly lxx shillings.

Also they say, that there are here no merchants, but tenants of land who live by their own lands, and their great labours only. In testimony of which thing, the aforesaid sworn men have affixed their seals to this indenture. The chauntry, or free chapel, dedicated to St.

Bartholomew, was erected on a piece of land granted by the lord of the manor of Brighthelmston, to the Priory of St. Pancras, at Southover, Lewes, under a quit rent of 3d a-year. It is now generally known by the name of Brighton place.

Attached to the chauntry was a dwelling for the two or three monks who officiated there. The chauntry was destroyed by the fire which devastated the town, on the landing of the French, under Primauget, and it never after recovered its accustomed use and influence. Thomas Hudson, in , the year he was collated to the rectory of Blatchington and vicarage of Brighthelmston. From the style of the architecture, and the decayed state of the timbers, there was ample room for supposing the building to have been erected not later than the close of the thirteenth century.

In the Bartholomews p. The parish workhouse, demolished in , was erected on its site, and the rest of the space continued nearly plain ground till, in , the market place was built, where the present Town Hall stands.

The original market-place, that possessed by the town under the charter of Edward II. Hudson, was vacated by the present vicar, the Rev. Henry Michell Wagner, in , and pulled down in The old vicarage garden was about a quarter of an acre in extent. The first stone of the present vicarage was laid on the 24th day of June, , and in the following year the structure was completed, and accepted by the Bishop of the Diocese, on the unanimous recommendation of six commissioners, namely, three laymen and three clergymen, to the effect that the exchange would be, in every respect, beneficial.

It stands in a garden of exactly two measured acres; and was built by Messrs. George Cheesman and Son. It had been granted to Lord Cromwell, on the dissolution of the Priory of Lewes; and on his attainder and execution, to Anne of Cleves. It reverted to the Crown in , after the death of that Princess, and afterwards came into the possession of Roger Blackbourne, a farmer of Yorkshire. Taylor soon after released his share to Codwell, who sold the whole to Midwinter.

In , an Act of Parliament was obtained for erecting and holding a daily market, Sundays excepted; and the waste land of the Bartholomews being a central situation, and the common property of the town, it was fixed on for the site of the said market. Bartholomew, and were so strongly impressed with superstitious awe, by the bones which they uncovered, that they refused to proceed with their work.

The vicar, the Rev. Henry Michell, being informed of their scruples, came to the spot, and instead of exerting his personal influence, which was very great over all classes of his parishioners, or vainly combating the prejudices of ignorance with reason, applauded their veneration for the supposed remains of Christians, but assured them that all who had ever been interred there were rank Papists.

Their first prejudice being thus laid by a stronger, the men resumed their work, and turned over the rest of the bones with the apathy of grave-diggers. About fifty years since, in one of the old tumble-down houses which occupied the site whereon now stand the Schools of Mr.

He had been a butcher; and the following specimen of his literary talent, written in a bold hand, in his window, expressed the cause of the change in his occupation; as he stated he was one. From the deepest research which the compiler of this work has been able to make, he cannot find that any Workhouse existed in p. February 26th, ,—That a mortgage be effected on the workhouse, to indemnify Thomas Simmons, in paying the moneys he made of the materialls of Blockhouse, to the constable and churchwardens; by them to be disbursed in payment of materialls and the workmen employed about building the workhouse.

At a public vestry meeting, held at the Old Ship, October 18th, , it is agreed that the Churchwardens and Overseers shall take up with all convenient speed, and borrow one hundred pounds, upon interest at 5 per centum per annum, towards building the new workhouse.

Amongst the minutes of the public vestry, 13th November, , there is the entry of a contract being entered into, between the parish and Thomas Fletcher and Thomas Tuppen, for digging and steining the well to the new workhouse, complete, with fittings, for ten guineas.

The Workhouse at this period was evidently of very limited extent. But in a portion of the Almshouses in connexion with the chauntry of St. Bartholomew was added to the building.

The spot is now occupied by the east end of the Brighton Market. A tenement for the poor previously existed in East street; and in , in consequence of the great increase of the poor-rates, on account of the inroads of the sea, and the injury experienced by the town from the civil and foreign wars of that and the preceding century, by order of the Justices at the quarter Sessions, at Lewes, the following parishes, that had no poor of their own, were called upon to make the following contributions:—.

At a monthly meeting of the Churchwardens and Overseers, held 27th August, , an accompt was given that Susan Stone, the widdow of Thomas, refused to ware the Town badge, viz t. The present Workhouse, on Church Hill, was commenced in , Mr.

Great alterations and additions have been made to the original building, according to the fancy or caprice of the boards of Guardians for the time being. John Cheesman was the builder. The ceremony of laying the foundation stone was not of the imposing character which is assumed on commencing similar public buildings in modern times.

The stone was merely one that had been dug up while getting out the ground for the foundation of the house; and was of the rudest shape, about two feet in length, eighteen inches in width, and ten inches in depth. It was laid by the Vicar, the Rev. Carr, afterwards Bishop of Chichester, and subsequently of Worcester. Brighton, at that time, had a population of 24,, and there were about 4, inhabited houses.

Fields surrounded the Workhouse grounds; that to the south, the detached grave-yard of the Old Church, being used for occasional festivities, and for the practice of the Royal Artillery.

The first building erected near the House was a soap manufactory, by a Mr. The premises are now the residence and establishment of Dr. On the failure of the soap works, which were to astonish the good people of p. Airey converted the building into school premises, and for a few years had a good school there,—the Church hill Grammar School. The Bohemian kings bestowed various privileges on Breslau, which soon began to extend its commerce in all directions, while owing to increasing wealth the citizens took up a more independent attitude.

After his death in it again became subject to Bohemia, passing with the rest of Silesia to the Habsburgs when in Ferdinand, afterwards emperor, was chosen king of Bohemia. Having passed almost undisturbed through the periods of the Reformation and the Thirty Years’ War, Breslau was compelled to own the authority of Frederick the Great in It was, however, recovered by the Austrians in , but was regained by Frederick after his victory at Leuthen in the same year, and has since belonged to Prussia, although it was held for a few days by the French in after the battle of Jena, and again in after the battle of Bautzen.

In March this monarch issued from Breslau his stirring appeals to the Prussians, An mein Volk and An mein Kriegesheer , and the city was the centre of the Prussian preparations for the campaign which ended at Leipzig.

After the Prussian victory at Sadowa in , William I. Silisiae,” vol. The Austrian part of Neisse still belongs to the bishop of Breslau, who also still bears the title of prince bishop. In he went to the French theatre at St Petersburg, where for eight years he played important parts with ever-increasing reputation. Bressant retired in , and died on the 23rd of January During his professorship at the Conservatoire, Mounet-Sully was one of his pupils.

It is a plain varying from to ft. Heaths and coppice alternate with pastures and arable land; pools and marshes are numerous, especially in the north. The soil is a gravelly clay but moderately fertile, and cattle-raising is largely carried on.

The region is, however, more especially celebrated for its table poultry. The inhabitants preserve a distinctive but almost obsolete costume, with a curious head-dress. The Bresse proper, called the Bresse Bressane , comprises the northern portion of the department of Ain. It was not till the first half of the 15th century that the province, with Bourg as its capital, was founded as such.

In it was ceded to France by the treaty of Lyons, after which it formed together with the province of Bugey first a separate government and afterwards part of the government of Burgundy.

The town is situated on an eminence overlooking the Dolo, a tributary of the Argenton. It is the centre of a cattle-rearing and agricultural region, and has important markets; the manufacture of wooden type and woollen goods is carried on. Bressuire has two buildings of interest: the church of Notre-Dame, which, dating chiefly from the 12th and 15th centuries, has an imposing tower of the Renaissance period; and the castle, built by the lords of [v. The whole forms the finest assemblage of feudal ruins in Poitou.

Bressuire is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. Among the disasters suffered at various times by the town, its capture from the English and subsequent pillage by French troops under du Guesclin in is the most memorable. Population town, 71,; commune, 85, It is situated to the north of a magnificent landlocked bay, and occupies the slopes of two hills divided by the river Penfeld,—the part of the town on the left bank being regarded as Brest proper, while the part on the right is known as Recouvrance.

There are also extensive suburbs to the east of the town. The hill-sides are in some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town has to be effected by flights of steps and the second or third storey of one house is often on a level with the ground storey of the next.

Running along the shore to the south of the town is the Cours d’Ajot, one of the finest promenades of its kind in France, named after the engineer who constructed it.

It is planted with trees and adorned with marble statues of Neptune and Abundance by Antoine Coysevox. The castle with its donjon and seven towers 12th to the 16th centuries , commanding the entrance to the river, is the only interesting building in the town.

Brest is the capital of one of the five naval arrondissements of France. The naval port, which is in great part excavated in the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld; it comprises gun-foundries and workshops, magazines, shipbuilding yards and repairing docks, and employs about workmen. There are also large naval barracks, training ships and naval schools of various kinds, and an important naval hospital. Brest is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, two naval tribunals, and a tribunal of maritime commerce.

The commercial port, which is separated from the town itself by the Cours d’Ajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer harbour; it is protected by jetties to the east and west and by a breakwater on the south. In the number of vessels entered was with a tonnage of 67,, and cleared with a tonnage of 61, The chief were wine, coal, timber, mineral tar, fertilizers and lobsters and crayfish. Besides its sardine and mackerel fishing industry, the town has flour-mills, breweries, foundries, forges, engineering works, and manufactures of blocks, candles, chemicals from sea-weed , boots, shoes and linen.

Brest communicates by submarine cable with America and French West Africa. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation with a maximum length of 14 m. Brest is a fortress of the first class. In John of Montfort gave it up to the English, and it did not finally leave their hands till Its medieval importance was great enough to give rise to the saying, “He is not duke of Brittany who is not lord of Brest.

The advantages of the situation for a seaport town were first recognized by Richelieu, who in constructed a harbour with wooden wharves, which soon became a station of the French navy. Colbert changed the wooden wharves for masonry and otherwise improved the post, and Vauban’s fortifications followed in During the 18th century the fortifications and the naval importance of the town continued to develop.

In an English squadron under John, 3rd Lord Berkeley, was miserably defeated in attempting a landing; but in , during the revolutionary war, the French fleet, under Villaret de Joyeuse, was as thoroughly beaten in the same place by the English admiral Howe.

Berestie and Berestov , a strongly fortified town of Russia, in the government of Grodno, m. It contains a Jewish synagogue, which was regarded in the 16th century as the first in Europe, and is the seat of an Armenian and of a Greek Catholic bishop; the former has authority over the Armenians throughout the whole country.

The town carries on an extensive trade in grain, flax, hemp, wood, tar and leather. First mentioned in the beginning of the 11th century, Brest-Litovsk was in laid waste by the Mongols and was not rebuilt till ; its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic Knights in ; and in the end of the 15th century the whole town met a similar fate at the hands of the khan of the Crimea.

In , and again in , the town was captured by the Swedes; in it was the scene of Suvarov’s victory over the Polish general Sierakowski; in it was added to the Russian empire. The Brest-Litovsk or King’s canal 50 m. He was only twenty-eight when he was appointed by Louis XV. He arranged to be temporarily absent from his post at the time of the palace revolution by which Catherine II.

In he was sent to Stockholm, and subsequently represented his government at Vienna, Naples, and again at Vienna until , when he was recalled to become minister of the king’s household. In this capacity he introduced considerable reforms in prison administration.

A close friend of Marie Antoinette, he presently came into collision with Calonne, who demanded his dismissal in His influence with the king and queen, especially with the latter, remained unshaken, and on Necker’s dismissal on the 11th of July , Breteuil succeeded him as chief minister. His distrust of the king’s brothers and his defence of Louis XVI. Breteuil himself was the object of violent attacks from the party of the princes, who asserted that he persisted in exercising powers which had been revoked by Louis XVI.

After the execution of Marie Antoinette he retired into private life near Hamburg, only returning to France in He died in Paris on the 2nd of November See the memoirs of Bertrand de Molleville 2 vols.

Daudet, Coblentz, , forming part of his Hist. Eure-et-Loir, arrondissement and canton of Chartres, commune of Sours , which gave its name to a celebrated treaty concluded there on the 8th of May , between Edward III. The exactions of the English, who wished to yield as few as possible of the advantages claimed by them in the treaty of London, made negotiations difficult, and the discussion of terms begun early in April lasted more than a month.

By virtue of this treaty Edward III. John II. On his side the king of England gave up the duchies of Normandy and Touraine, the countships of Anjou and Maine, and the suzerainty of Brittany and of Flanders.

As a guarantee for the payment of his ransom, John the Good gave as hostages two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France.

This treaty was ratified and sworn to by the two kings and by their eldest sons on the 24th of October , at Calais. At the same time were signed the special conditions relating to each important article of the treaty, and the renunciatory clauses in which the kings abandoned their rights over the territory they had yielded to one another. See Rymer’s Foedera , vol. Luce, vol. Paris, vol. His artistic gifts being manifest at an early age, he was sent in to Ghent, to study under the historical painter de Vigne, and in to Baron Wappers at Antwerp.

Finally he worked in Paris under Drolling. His first efforts were in historical subjects: “Saint Piat preaching in Gaul”; then, under the influence of the revolution of , he represented “Misery and Despair. Thenceforward he was essentially a painter of rustic life, especially in the province of Artois, which he quitted only three times for short excursions: in to Provence, and in and to Brittany, whence he derived some of his happiest studies of religious scenes.

His numerous subjects may be divided generally into four classes: labour, rest, rural festivals and religious festivals.

Breton was elected to the Institut in on the death of Baudry. In he was made commander of the Legion of Honour, and in foreign member of the Royal Academy of London.

Nicholas Breton was probably born at the “capitall mansion house” in Red Cross Street, in the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate, mentioned in his father’s will. There is no official record of his residence at the university, but the diary of the Rev. Richard Madox tells us that he was at Antwerp in and was “once of Oriel College.

He is supposed to have died shortly after the publication of his last work, Fantastickes Breton found a patron in Mary, countess of Pembroke, and wrote much in her honour until , when she seems to have withdrawn her favour.

It is probably safe to supplement the meagre record of his life by accepting as autobiographical some of the letters signed N. His work consists of religious and pastoral poems, satires, and a number of miscellaneous prose tracts. His religious poems are sometimes wearisome by their excess of fluency and sweetness, but they are evidently the expression of a devout and earnest mind.

His praise of the Virgin and his references to Mary Magdalene have suggested that he was a Catholic, but his prose writings abundantly prove that he was an ardent Protestant. Breton had little gift for satire, and his best work is to be found in his pastoral poetry. His Passionate Shepheard is full of sunshine and fresh air, and of unaffected gaiety. The third pastoral in this book—”Who can live in heart so glad As the merrie country lad”—is well known; with some other of Breton’s daintiest poems, among them the lullaby, “Come little babe, come silly soule,” [1] —it is incorporated in A.

Bullen’s Lyrics from Elizabethan Romances His keen observation of country life appears also in his prose idyll, Wits Trenchmour , “a conference betwixt a scholler and an angler,” and in his Fantastickes , a series of short prose pictures of the months, the Christian festivals and the hours, which throw much light on the customs of the times. Most of Breton’s books are very rare and have great bibliographical value.

His works, with the exception of some belonging to private owners, were collected by Dr A. Grosart in the [v. Sir Philip Sidney’s Ourania by N. Enlisting on the 24th of May , he served against the French in Valencia and Catalonia, and retired with the rank of corporal on the 8th of March He obtained a minor post in the civil service under the liberal government, and on his discharge determined to earn his living by writing for the stage.

His industry was astonishing: between October and November , he composed thirty-nine plays, six of them original, the rest being translations or recasts of classic masterpieces. In he published a translation of Tibullus, and acquired by it an unmerited reputation for scholarship which secured for him an appointment as sub-librarian at the national library.

But the theatre claimed him for its own, and with the exception of Elena and a few other pieces in the fashionable romantic vein, his plays were a long series of successes. His only serious check occurred in ; the former liberal had grown conservative with age, and in La Ponchada he ridiculed the National Guard. He became secretary to the Spanish Academy, quarrelled with his fellow-members, and died at Madrid on the 8th of November He is the author of some three hundred and sixty original plays, twenty-three of which are in prose.

No Spanish dramatist of the nineteenth century approaches him in comic power, in festive invention, and in the humorous presentation of character, while his metrical dexterity is unique.

In he entered the university of Leipzig, where he studied theology for four years. After some years of hesitation he resolved to be ordained, and in he passed with great distinction the examination for candidatus theologiae , and attracted the regard of F.

Reinhard, author of the System der christlichen Moral , then court-preacher at Dresden, who became his warm friend and patron during the remainder of his life.

In Bretschneider was Privat-docent at the university of Wittenberg, where he lectured on philosophy and theology. During this time he wrote his work on the development of dogma, Systematische Entwickelung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe nach den symbolischen Schriften der evangelisch-lutherischen und reformirten Kirche , 4th ed. On the advance of the French army under Napoleon into Prussia, he determined to leave Wittenberg and abandon his university career.

Through the good offices of Reinhard, he became pastor of Schneeberg in Saxony In he was promoted to the office of superintendent of the church of Annaberg, in which capacity he had to decide, in accordance with the canon law of Saxony, many matters belonging to the department of ecclesiastical law. But the climate did not agree with him, and his official duties interfered with his theological studies. With a view to a change he took the degree of doctor of theology in Wittenberg in August In he was appointed general superintendent at Gotha, where he remained until his death in This was the great period of his literary activity.

In was published his treatise on the gospel of St John, entitled Probabilia de Evangelii el Epistolarum Joannis Apostoli indole et origine , which attracted much attention. In it he collected with great fulness and discussed with marked moderation the arguments against Johannine authorship. This called forth a number of replies. To the astonishment of every one, Bretschneider announced in the preface to the second edition of his Dogmatik in , that he had never doubted the authenticity of the gospel, and had published his Probabilia only to draw attention to the subject, and to call forth a more complete defence of its genuineness.

Bretschneider remarks in his autobiography that the publication of this work had the effect of preventing his appointment as successor to Karl C. His greatest contribution to the science of exegesis was his Lexicon Manuale Graeco-Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti , 3rd ed.

This work was valuable for the use which its author made of the Greek of the Septuagint, of the Old and New Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus, and of the apostolic fathers, in illustration of the language of the New Testament.

In he published Apologie der neuern Theologie des evangelischen Deutschlands. Hugh James Rose had published in England a volume of sermons on the rationalist movement The State of the Protestant Religion in Germany , in which he classed Bretschneider with the rationalists; and Bretschneider contended that he himself was not a rationalist in the ordinary sense of the term, but a “rational supernaturalist. His dogmatic position seems to be intermediate between the extreme school of naturalists, such as Heinrich Paulus, J.

Strauss and F. Baur on the other. Recognizing a supernatural element in the Bible, he nevertheless allowed to the full the critical exercise of reason in the interpretation of its dogmas cp. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology , pp. See his autobiography, Aus meinem Leben: Selbstbiographie von K.

Bretschneider Gotha, , of which a translation, with notes, by Professor George E. It has some manufactories of machinery and japanned goods, and a considerable trade in timber and livestock. Bretten was the birthplace of Melanchthon , and in addition to a [v. In the Chronicle the title is given to Ecgbert, king of the English, “the eighth king that was Bretwalda,” and retrospectively to seven kings who ruled over one or other of the English kingdoms.

The seven names are copied from Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica , and it is interesting to note that the last king named, Oswiu of Northumbria, lived years before Ecgbert. It has been assumed that these seven kings exercised a certain superiority over a large part of England, but if such superiority existed it is certain that it was extremely vague and was unaccompanied by any unity of organization.

Another theory is that Bretwalda refers to a war-leadership, or imperium , over the English south of the Humber, and has nothing to do with Britons or Britannia. In support of this explanation it is urged that the title is given in the Chronicle to Ecgbert in the year in which he “conquered the kingdom of the Mercians and all that was south of the Humber. See E. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest , vol. Oxford, ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History , vol. Oxford, ; J. Green, The Making of England , vol.

London, ; F. Rhys, Celtic Britain London, After receiving instruction in painting from Koek, whose daughter he married, he spent some time in France and Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into the Academy in He finally settled at Brussels and died there.

The subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous figures, like those of D. Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that master, he has abundant spirit and comic power. He is said to have died about the year at the age of sixty; other accounts give as the date of his death. His son Pieter , the younger , known as “Hell” Breughel, was born in Brussels and died at Antwerp, where his “Christ bearing the Cross” is in the museum. Another son Jan c. He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruits, and afterwards acquired considerable reputation by his landscapes and sea-pieces.

After residing long at Cologne he travelled into Italy, where his landscapes, adorned with small figures, were greatly admired.

He left a large number of pictures, chiefly landscapes, which are executed with great skill. Rubens made use of Breughel’s hand in the landscape part of several of his small pictures—such as his “Vertumnus and Pomona,” the “Satyr viewing the Sleeping Nymph,” and the “Terrestrial Paradise. The use of the word is mainly confined to a commission, or official document, giving to an officer in the army a permanent, as opposed to a local and temporary, rank in the service higher than that he holds substantively in his corps.

In the British army “brevet rank” exists only above the rank of captain, but in the United States army it is possible to obtain a brevet as first lieutenant. In the early days of Christian worship, when Jewish custom was followed, the Bible furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited.

The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church bishop or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the psalms.

This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions.

Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office:—the Antiphonarium , the Old and New Testaments, the Passionarius liber and the Legendarius dealing respectively with martyrs and saints , the Homiliarius homilies on the Gospels , the Sermologus collection of sermons and the works of the Fathers, besides, of course, the Psalterium and the Collectarium.

To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a Breviarium Psalterii made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies.

The Breviary rightly so called, however, only dates from the 11th century; the earliest MS. Gregory VII. These preaching friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX. Finally, Nicholas III. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own. The only other types that merit notice are:— 1 the Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son; 2 the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which they derive from St Ambrose see Liturgy.

Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Russian To English: russian to english translation service. Play for free to see just how easy casino games can be for beginners.

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They were styled Thanes , or noblemen of considerable possessions. There are besides, portions called White Hawk, and Church Hill.

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